Biblica_1_Layout 1 20/01/12 11:44 Pagina 581 581 PROSOPOPOETICS AND CONFLICT: SPEECH AND EXPECTATIONS use of prosopopoiia, John effectively gives voice to Jesus in such a way that upsets the expectations of other characters at a key moment in the narrative in order to reinforce the believability of his own pres- entation for his audience. I. Definitions of Prosopopoiia Prosopopoiia is often associated with the lengthy speeches crafted by Herodotus and Thucydides for great generals on the cusp of battle or for statesmen embroiled in crucial debates. Another common as- sociation is with the works of orators who “personified” — or better “impersonated” — figures from the past in order to interject their “opinions” in key court cases 3. Nevertheless, while rhetorical hand- books and progymnasmata include such ideas of prosopopoiia in their definitions of this technique, they do not limit the practice so precisely (cf. Quintilian, Inst. Or. 3.8.49-54). Instead, prosopopoiia overlaps significantly with other discussions of “attributed speech” 4, particu- larly dialogue, a technique with which it is included in some hand- books 5. In this light, prosopopoiia can be regarded in more general terms as the creation of appropriate speech for a person or object which is germane to the occasion on which the speech is given and the work in which it is relayed. By adding speech to their works, authors contributed to the believability of their characters and events depicted while adding persuasive power by appealing to their audience’s emo- 3 Cicero’s personification in his defense of Marcus Caelio is a classic example of prosopopoiia in a courtroom. In his defense, Cicero impersona- tes Appius Claudius, a famous ancestor of Caelio’s old mistress and accuser, Clodia, to shame her character (Cael. 14). He then impersonates her brother, Clodius, who encouraged her pursuit of vice elsewhere (Cael. 15; cf. Quin- tilian, Inst. Or. 3.8.54). Cicero’s technique successfully shifted the court’s focus from the charges brought against Caelio to the questionable reputation of Clodia. See also Plato’s use of prosopopoetics to give voice to those ex- pressing different points of view in his dialogues (cf. Rep. 365c-367a; 455a- c), especially Socrates’ personification of “the Laws” in the Crito (50d-54d). 4 This term is used with permission from C.A. GIBSON, “Prosopopoeia in the New Testament: Where Should We Look, and What Should We Expect to Find?” (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the SBL, Philadelphia, PA 2005). 5 Theon, Prog. 68; Quintilian, Inst. Or. 9.2.31-37; Ps.-Cicero, Rhet. Her. 4.51.65-53.66.