56 Cornelis Bennema Our study of Palestinian Jewish messianic apocalypticism and the Fourth Gospel demonstrates important points of contact, but the Fourth Gospel also significantly redefines and subverts various Jewish messianic expectations. First, both messianic apocalypticism and the Fourth Gospel “spiritualize” the concept of messiahship, in that the source of the messiah’s liberating power is supernatural rather than human military. Additionally, the Fourth Gospel also spiritualizes the concept of liberation, claiming that all people primarily need to be liberated from the spiritual oppression of sin and the devil (although cf. the notion of Belial in Qumran). Nevertheless, these concepts are still related to social-religious-political realities of this world. Second, as in messianic apocalypticism, the Johannine messiah is also expected to sift the righteous and the wicked rather than liberating the nation Israel from the Romans. However, whereas for messianic apocalypticism this is the liberation of “Israel” at the end of the age, the Fourth Gospel depicts the liberation of the world at large which has already started now. The Fourth Gospel has pulled the future into the present — all people are invited now to enter the true Israel inaugurated by Jesus. Third, we argued, contra Collins, that the Johannine Jesus uses for this sifting/liberation a similar “sword” to that of the messianic figures in Palestinian apocalypticism, namely, the Spirit-imbued word of truth from his mouth. Similar to Psalms of Solomon and Qumran, the Fourth Gospel depicts this eschatological liberator as a teacher-messiah (63). The continuation of Jesus’ liberating mission in this world is guaranteed through the transference of Jesus’ “sword” to his disciples. Jesus’ subversive programme of liberation, then, presents a radical alternative to Torah-centred mainstream Judaism (as represented by “the Jews”), to withdrawal from the world (Qumran community), to go “quietly” underground (the apocalyptic literature), to nationalistic militancy (social bandits [Barabbas in 18,40], messianic pretenders, Zealots) and to collaboration with the Romans (Herodians) (64). The Johannine Jesus is not a militant activist, but neither is he a pacifistic quietist; he debated fiercely with “the Jews”, interacted incisively with Pilate, drove people out of the temple, etc. Jesus is a “revolutionary” in that he demands an exclusive allegiance to himself and constitutes a society that operates subversively in this world (65). (63) Cf. Davies’ suggestion that the teaching activity of the messiah in the gospels may be more significant than any “Davidic” title (“Judaisms”, 232). (64) Cf. MOTYER, Father, 87-102. (65) Cf. HORSLEY, Jesus, 324-326.