Geoffrey D. Miller, «Canonicity and Gender Roles: Tobit and Judith as Test Cases», Vol. 97 (2016) 199-221
Clues from rabbinic literature suggest that several factors were at play in establishing the early Jewish canon, including the dating, theology, and language of disputed texts. Another vital yet overlooked criterion is adherence to patriarchy, and a careful analysis of the Books of Judith and Tobit illustrates how these texts failed to meet rabbinic standards for gender roles. Most notably, the countercultural figures of Judith and Anna would have scandalized the rabbis by their encroachment on traditionally male spheres of activity, their freedom of movement inside and outside the home, and their ability to chastise male characters without repercussions.
CANoNICITY ANd GeNder roLeS 219
occupy themselves with domestic duties, and be subjugated to their
husbands, who are supposed to shape them into suitable vessels. Anna
undermines all these patriarchal norms and in effect emasculates her
husband. From the rabbis’ perspective, the Book of Tobit cannot be
disseminated, lest men and women get the wrong impression about
their proper roles in society.
V. Conclusion
Multiple factors likely contributed to the exclusion of certain texts
from the Jewish canon, but the rabbis’ preoccupation with women and
patriarchy was one of the most influential. Their androcentrism per-
vades the Talmud and related literature, and their perception of reality
was strongly filtered through this lens. In their estimation, Judith and
Tobit do not warrant mention in the Talmud, probably because their
candidacy for canonicity was rejected early on. Problematic aspects of
these books, such as their late date or possible composition in Greek,
would have given the rabbis pause in regarding them as sacred works,
and a few minor details such as the improper conversion of the Am-
monite Achior or the potentially flawed marriage contract of Tobiah
and Sarah may have played a small part as well. However, the inclusion
of other texts such as daniel and esther prove that minor details such
as these were not impediments to canonicity. Nowhere in rabbinic lit-
erature does one find objections to daniel’s late date or its Aramaic
portions, nor are there complaints about esther’s exogamous marriage.
Concern about gender norms, however, abounds in these texts, and
Judith and Tobit fail to cohere with the rabbis’ worldview. Judith
leaves behind a life of seclusion on her estate and trespasses into the
world of men, proving to be more adept as a warrior, civic leader, and
theologian than the men of Bethulia. She has no need for male protec-
tion but provides that protection for others, even though she should be
more focused on providing a male heir for her deceased husband.
Moreover, she is not a woman to be formed by men but manipulates
men to do her will, and she cripples one army (Assyria’s) before tak-
ing command of another (Israel’s). The Book of Tobit features several
women who cut against the grain of patriarchy, such as Tobit’s grand-
mother deborah, who instructs him in the Mosaic Law, and his
kinswoman Sarah, whose calmly composed prayer surpasses Tobit’s
weepy lament. Most notable is Tobit’s wife Anna, who establishes
economic ties outside the familial sphere and succeeds as a working
woman, and her taste of independence emboldens her to upbraid