422 T.B. WIllIAMs (“this is grace from God”), others contend that the focus is on praise- worthy human action which finds divine approval (“this is commend- able before God”). Petrine scholarship has been, and continues to be, divided over this issue. Unraveling the meaning of ca,rij in these verses is the goal of the present inquiry. To do so, we will seek to draw from the expectations and responsibilities inherent within reciprocal relationships in the Greco-Roman world. This social context, we will argue, provides the key to understanding the unique way that the Petrine author employs ca,rij within his larger theological scheme. Informed by the social dy- namics of ancient gift-exchange, we will not only propose a solution to an interpretive problem which has long divided Petrine scholarship, but also suggest a new direction for understanding the letter’s theology of suffering. I. Competing Views of ca,rij in 1 Peter 2,19-20 Before we consider ca,rij in light of ancient systems of reciprocity and gift-exchange, it is important to understand how the term has tra- ditionally been interpreted and the problems inherent within each of these approaches. 1. Ca,rij as Divine Provision One way that interpreters have understood ca,rij in this passage is as the unmerited favor which God freely bestows upon those who please him (normally translated as “grace”). In this way, the term de- notes a divine provision received by believers. While this view traces its roots back to post-Reformation perspectives on the theology of grace, its popularity within Petrine scholarship has remained strong even up until more recent times. This interpretation coincides with much of the work that has been done on ca,rij within New Testament studies in general. Biblical scholars and theologians alike have long assigned an important theological significance to the term, which dis- tinguishes it from its traditional usage within other Greco-Roman source materials 2. 2 A few of the more notable studies which take this approach include: J. MOFFATT, Grace in the New Testament (london 1931); W. MAsON, “Grace in the New Testament”, The Doctrine of Grace (ed. W.T. WHITley) (london 1932) 33-60; R. WINkleR, “Die Gnade im Neuen Testament”, ZST 10 (1933) 642-680; T.N. sCHUlTz, The Meaning of Charis in the New Testament (Genova 1971).