Yahweh Gears Up for Battle: Habakkuk 3,9a 81 attested in Hebrew, Akkadian, Arabic, and Ethiopic (42). While some have preferred to relate it to Ugaritic m-r-r I, “to eject”, Virolleaud and Pardee are no doubt correct in deriving it from the root sense “to be bitter”. Of the possible meanings of this root, the interpretation of πmrr.nh≥π as “the serpent’s venom injection” best fits the context because of the parallel expression ntk.nh≥π (“the serpent’s bite”) in the previous line and h≥mt (“[the serpent’s] venom”) two lines later. Specifically, Pardee takes it as a nominal form of the ∏ stem of the verb, with the meaning “to make (something) bitter”, lit., “the causing of bitterness” > “the injection of venom” (43). The existence of a ∏ stem form referring to the injection of serpent’s venom in Ugaritic, a Northwest Semitic language closely related to biblical Hebrew, is important insofar as the Ugaritic ∏ stem equates directly with Hebrew Hiphil and thus with the reading rmeT; proposed above for Hab 3,9a. 5. The Use of Serpent’s Gall to Poison Projectiles Thus far I have presented evidence from Pardee’s work to demonstrate a connection between the Semitic root m-r-r and serpent’s gall/venom. In the following paragraphs I will provide evidence from the pre-Christian period of the use of serpent’s gall as a poison — in fact, the poison of choice — with which to arm projectiles for use in battle. This substance was considered to be highly toxic and therefore particularly lethal. Pardee cites several classical authors from the turn of the era who make reference to the widespread use in ancient times of serpent’s gall to poison arrows. In Virgil’s Aeneid the poet speaks of “an arrow . . . which, armed with [serpent’s] bile of dire venom, a Parthian . . . let fly, a missile (that inflicts an) incurable (wound)” (44). In one of his works Ovid mentions certain tribes who carry around poisoned arrows: “Among them [the Sarmatae and Getae tribes] there is not one who does not bear quiver and bow, and darts yellow with viper’s gall” (45). See also his comment in Ex Ponto: “(I live in the midst of enemies) who, to double with a cruel wound the causes of death, smear every dart with viper’s gall” (46). Diodorus of Sicily makes the point that Heracles slew the Lernean hydra and poisoned his arrows with its gall: After he had killed the Lernaean hydra, Hercules “dipped the heads of his arrows in the bile, in order that when the missile should be shot the wound which the point made might be incurable” (47). These ancient sources provide evidence of the widespread use of (42) See H. RINGGREN, “rrm”, TDOT IX, 15. (43) “meŸrôr˝t-peŸt˝nîm”, 408. (44) Ibid., 413 (translation mine). “. . . sagitta, armatam saevi Parthus quam felle veneni . . . telum immedicabile, torsit” (Aeneid (XII 856-58). The text printed in Pardee’s article mistakenly has armatum for armatam. (45) Ibid. “. . . in quibus et nemo, qui non coryton et arcum telaque vipereo lurida felle gerat” (Tristia V vii 15-16). (46) Ibid. “. . . qui, mortis saevo geminent ut vulnere causas, omnia vipero spicula felle linunt” (Ex Ponto I ii 13-16). Here spicula could also be translated “spear-” or “arrowheads”. (47) Ibid., 414. “. . . eij" th;n colh;n ajpevbapte ta; ajkivda", i{na to; blhqe;n bevlo" e[ch/ th;n ejk th'" ajkivdo" plhgh;n ajnivaton (Diodorus of Sicily IV xi 5-6). The translation in Pardee’s article has “venom” for colhv, but the term is more accurately translated “bile” here.