86 Iwan M. Whiteley The Parthians lived on the eastern border with Rome and were known for their skill at using the bow while riding on horseback. The Parthian general Vologases I and his men rode on white horses. War had broken out between Rome and Parthia as early as 53BC and the Romans were unable to overpower their enemy. The mobile Parthians were able to route the Roman legions, but were unable to hold territory, the result was that neither empire could conquer the other. Kistemaker argued that it was highly unlikely that the Parthians are being referred to in Revelation be- cause they waged defensive warfare and they had never conquered any of the Roman Empire48. However, Parthia had invaded Asia Minor in 41BC and their lack of ability to hold land does not mean that they did not want to hold it; they were just strategically unable to. Krodel argues that John adopted the Parthian imagery because the Parthians kept conquering the Romans on the battlefield and the antichrist will act like a Parthian and destroy Rome (Revelation 16:12; 17:12-17)49. The problem with Krodel’s proposal is that Parthia was unable to actually take Rome, they could only win battles against her. Calaway, Rissi and Vos argue that the rider on the white horse is an antichrist50. This is a common conclusion based upon the previous proposals of the rider on the white horse being either a victor in war or Parthian. The implication is that the antichrist is seeking to conquer the churches. Irenaeus, Chilton, Oecumenius, Hendriksen, Hodges, Govett, Ladd, Wilcock, Considine and Heil argue that the rider on the white horse is Jesus51. A similar view is held by Victorinus, Allo, Lenski, Seiss and M. Kiddle, The Revelation of St. John. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1941, 113-14; E. Schüssler Fiorenza, Revelation (Proclamation Commentaries; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991) 63; B. Metzger, Breaking the Code Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1993, 58. S. Kistemaker, Exposition of the Book of Revelation (New Testament Commentary 48 20; Grand Rapids 2001) 223. Krodel, Revelation, 173. 49 B. Calaway, Revealing the Revelation London: International Scholars Publications, 50 1998, 245; M. Rissi, Was ist und was geschehen soll danach: Die Zeit- und Geschichtsauf- fassung der Offenbarung des Johannes (Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments, 46; Zürich: Zwingli, 1965) 89; also M. Rissi, ‘The Rider on the White Horse’ Int 18 (1964) 407-418; L. Vos, The Synoptic Traditions in the Apocalypse Kampen: J. H. Kok, 1965, 191. Ireneus, Against Heresies 4.21.3; D. Chilton, The Days of Vengeance Texas, Domin- 51 ion Press, 1987, 186; OEcumenius, The Complete Commentary of Oecumenius on the Apocalypse (ed. with notes H. C. Hoskier; University of Michigan studies. Humanistic series, vol. XXIII; Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1928) 84; W. Hendriksen, More than Conquerors London: IVP, 1973, 93-6; Z. Hodges, ‘The First Horseman of the Apoca- lypse’ Bsac 119 (1962) 324-34; R. Govett, The Apocalypse: Expounded by Scripture vol. 2 (Norwich, London, 1862) 161-68; G. Ladd, A Commentary, 97-99; J. Considine, ‘The Rider on the White Horse: Apocalypse 6:1-8’ CBQ 6 (1944) 421; M. Wilcock, I Saw Heaven Opened: The Message of Revelation BST, Leicester: IVP, 1975, 70; J. Heil, ‘The Fifth Seal (Rev 6,9-11) as a Key to the Book of Revelation’ Biblica 74 (1993) 223.