546 Luca Mazzinghi We consider the text as part of a tiny literary unit (4,1-3) which describe five moments in human relationships (5). The text opens with an observation of an experiential character introduced by the verb har (“to see”), which denotes, rather, to examine, to value, to consider in the light of one’s own experience (6). The object of Qoheleth’s observation is every kind of oppression (μyqv[) (7) which is carried out in the world, among humans. This oppression originates precisely from humanity itself (8). Like the sages of Israel, Qoheleth knows very well that violence and force prevail in the world; different forms of oppression are, therefore, a constant drama in the history of humanity. The root qv[ recurs three times in the same verse, in three different forms, so as to render it the basic theme of our text. qv[ refers to oppression of a socio-economic kind. This is confirmed by the prophetic vocabulary where qv[ regards the expropriation of land on the part of the very rich (cf. especially Amos 3,9; 4,1; Hos 5,11; Mic 2,2; Ezek 22,29) (9). The root appears again in two, probably late, psalms (Pss 103,6; 146,7) where it indicates, in fact, that particular category of people, “the oppressed”, for whom God will effect justice. Qoh 4,1 goes well beyond the (typically sapiential) observation of a situation of misery and oppression, without expressing a judgement. Qoheleth takes note of it, acting thus in the characteristic way of the sages of Israel who want to understand reality before making a “their oppressors posses power”; but it is an unconvincing emendation, not supported by any textual witness. (5) For this subdivision, cf. BIANCHI, “Essi non hanno chi li consoli”, 301-302; cf. also V. D’ALARIO, Il libro di Qohelet. Struttura letteraria e retorica (RivBSupp 27; Bologna 1992) 116-119. The 4,1-3 is a transitional unity inside a major section — Qoh 3,16–6,9. (6) On this use of the verb har, cf., in particular, P. VAN HECKE, “The Verbs har and [mv in the Book of Qoheleth. A Cognitive-Semantic Perspective”, A. BERLEJUNG – P. VAN HECKE, The Language of Qoheleth in its Context (FS. A. Schoors) (Leuven – Paris – Dudley, MA 2007) 203-220; especially 219-220. Van Hecke prefers to give the verb har in 4,1 the more precise sense of “examine”. (7) The term μyqv[, from the root qv[, “to oppresss”, should not be considered as a participle but as an abstract substantive, as “a nominal formation used for abstract nouns”; cf. A. SCHOORS, The Preacher Sought to Find Pleasing Words. A Study of the Language of Qoheleth (Louvain 2004) II, 345. (8) The niphal of the verb hc[ has a predicative function here: “the oppres- sions that are perpetrated”; cf. SCHOORS, The Preacher Sought, II, 83-84. (9) With regard to the social context which could be behind Qoh 4,1, H.W. HERTZBERG, Der Prediger (Gütersloh 1963) 113, speaks of “Latifundienwesen, harte Steuergesetzgebung, Vorrechte bestimmter Klassen”.