396 CALLIA RULMU the lower ranks of society, some of whom were probably “already involved in some form of voluntary association” 16. Since Paul’s advice to this specific group is to keep a low profile and respect the order of things (1 Thess 5,14) so as to avoid any unnecessary publicity and possible hostility, an ulterior look at the “very real danger in belonging to an unrecognized society during the imperial period ” may be required 17. As Cotter suggested, there is a need to properly weigh “the clear evidence of Roman prohibition of such societies and the constant threat of their sudden investigation and dissolution ” 18. During the Roman Empire, Macedonia maintained its strong Greek character (cf. Livy 31.29) 19. Thessalonica had been its capital since 146 BCE. In Paul’s day, in addition to her Greek heritage, the city of Thessalonica had a strong Roman presence and influence 20. Thessalonica was already well-known for its role during the civil wars that burst out in the first century BCE for the control of the Republic and, later, the Empire. Pompey established its headquarters in the city in 48 BCE. A few years later, when Julius Caesar was murdered (44 BCE), Thessalonica supported Brutus and Cassius. In neither case did the Macedonian city make a far-sighted choice. To be sure, the Thessalonians were wise and we delight in the work [of craftsmen and artisans], we despise the workman . . . it does not necessarily follow that, if the work delights you with its graces, the one who wrought it is worthy of your esteem”, quoted by WINTER, “ ’If a Man’”, 304; see also HOCK, The Social Context, 35-36. ASCOUGH, “The Thessalonian”, 315. 16 W. COTTER, “The Collegia and Roman Law. State restrictions on volun- 17 tary associations, 64 BCE – 200 CE”, Voluntary Associations in the Graeco- Roman World (eds. J.S. KLOPPENBORG — S.G. WILSON) (London and New York 1996) 88. COTTER, “The Collegia”, 88. See also I. ARNAOUTOGLOU, “Roman Law 18 and Collegia in Asia Minor”, RIDA 49 (3e série ; 2002) 27-44, who shows that the application of restrictions against associations was highly selective and very local. For a description of Macedonia during the Roman Empire see: 19 M.B. COSMOPOULOS, Macedonia. An Introduction to its Political History (Winnipeg 1992) 49-51: “Macedonians in the Roman period had a strong Greek conscience, spoke Greek, and were considered Greeks by the Roman administration ” (51). On the administration of the Eastern cities during the first century see R. MACMULLEN, Enemies of the Roman Order. Treason, Un- rest, and Alienation in the Empire (Cambridge, MA 1966) 165-168. H.L. HENDRIX, “Thessalonica”, ABD 6, 523-527. 20