397 BETWEEN AMBITION QUIETISM AND quick enough to redirect their support to Octavian and Anthony, thus becoming a civitas libera in 42 BCE (Plutarch, Brut. 46 ; Pliny the Elder, Nat. 3.36) 21. When Octavian and Anthony turned on each other, Thessalonica stood at first for Anthony, even to the point of inaugurating a new era in his honour. But after Octavian’s decisive victory over Anthony in 31 BCE at the battle of Actium, Thessalonica was again quick to switch its allegiance, and became a supporter of the new Emperor. Jerome Murphy-O’Connor informs us about erased inscriptions dating from this period that bear witness to the Thessalonians early commitment to Mark Anthony, but also their subsequent ‘embarrassment’ and proverbial adeptness in redressing an unfortunate situation 22. B e c a u s e of its behavior in recent history, the city of Thessalonica was not seen as embodying the ideals of unconditional faithfulness to Rome or any other ruling entity in the first century CE. This fact surely played a role in how Roman authorities and also Greek rulers viewed the local voluntary associations and guilds, since these corporations were eager to play a political role in the arena of their own city. 2. Common Distrust Against Voluntary Associations During the first century, Thessalonica had very low wages and l imi t ed opportunities for employment. Such a discouraging situation would naturally lead to widespread unemployment and even idleness (cf. 1 Thess 4,11-12). A logical outcome of this state was the impoverishment of lower status workers, who would turn to their association for support 23. Bruce W. Winter points out that in time of famine, Roman citizens were entitled to a monthly dole of corn 24. But since “few in the Thessalonian congregation [...] qualified if the dole was given to Roman citizens in that city” 25, the ASCOUGH, Voluntary Associations, 48. 21 J. MURPHY-O’CONNOR, Paul. A Critical Life (Oxford 1996) 15; see also 22 HENDRIX, “Thessalonica”, 523-527 and IG X/2 83, cited by ASCOUGH, Volun- tary Associations, 109. R. RUSSEL, “The Idle in 2 Thess 3.6-12: An Eschatological or a Social 23 Problem ? ”, NTS 34 (1988) 112. WINTER, “‘If a Man’”, 309. 24 WINTER, “‘If a Man’”, 310. R. MACMULLEN, Roman Social Relations 25 50 B.C. to A.D. 284 (New Haven – London 1974) 167.